Female Migrant Street Prostitution during COVID-19 in Milan. A Qualitative Study on How Sex Workers Coped with the Challenges of the Pandemic
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1971-8853/13344Keywords:
Covid-19, Migrant women, Sex Market, Exploitation, Agency, Layers of vulnerabilityAbstract
The article presents the outcome of a qualitative study on female migrant sex workers involved in street prostitution during the first two waves of COVID-19 in Italy, by focusing on their responses to the challenges posed by the pandemic in terms of economic strain and health hazards. The study, carried out from January 2020 to January 2021, has focused on the street sex market, given that this sector was particularly affected by mobility restrictions adopted during the pandemic, and on the city of Milan since it is one of the main hubs of human trafficking in Europe and one of the main sex markets in Italy, as well as one of the Italian cities most heavily hit by COVID-19. According to the findings of the empirical research — based on interviews and participant observation —, migrant women’s experiences in the sex market during the pandemic show two concomitant elements, one referring to agency and the other to exploitation. This outcome has led us to put forward a third balanced theoretical perspective, between the two views polarizing the debate on sex trafficking — namely the “victimization approach” and the “critical approach” — that is grounded on the conceptual tool “layers of vulnerability” discussed in the bioethics debate.
References
Abbatecola, E. (2006). L’altra donna. Immigrazione e prostituzione in contesti metropolitani. Milano: Franco Angeli.
Abbatecola, E. (2010). Gli scenari della prostituzione straniera. Mondi Migranti, 1, 31–45. https://doi.org/10.3280/MM2010-001002
Abbatecola, E. (2018). Trans-migrazioni. Lavoro, sfruttamento e violenza di genere nei mercati globali del sesso. Torino: Rosenberg & Sellier.
Abbatecola, E., Benasso, S., & Pidello, C. (2014). I mercati del sesso. Tratta, turismo sessuale e clienti nell’era della globalizzazione. (ETTS report DCI-NSAED/2010/234-237). https://docplayer.it/10010069-I-mercati-del-sesso-tratta-turismo-sessuale-e-clienti-nell-era-della-globalizzazione.html
Adebayo Adebisi, Y., Jumoke Alaran, A., Tolulope Akinokun, R., Iordepuun Michael, A., Bosede Ilesanmi, E., & Eliseo Lucero-Prisno, D. (2020). Perspective Piece Sex Workers Should not Be Forgotten in Africa’s COVID-19 Response. The American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 103(5), 1780–1782. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.20-1045
Adriaenssens, S., Geymonat, G.G., & Oso, L. (2016). Quality of Work in Prostitution and Sex Work. Sociological Research Online, 21(9), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.5153/sro.4165
Aghatise, E. (2011). La condizione delle donne in Nigeria. Elementi socio-culturali e religiosi della donna africana tra passato e futuro (Conference presentation). Giornata di Riflessione per Religiose e Quanti Operano nella Tratta, Roma, USMI.
Agnoletto, V. (2020). Senza respiro. Un’inchiesta indipendente sulla pandemia coronavirus, in Lombardia, Italia, Europa. Come ripensare un modello di sanità pubblica. Milano: Altraeconomia.
Agustin, L. (2001). Sex Workers and Violence Against Women: Utopic Visions or Battle of the Sexes?. Development, 44, 107–110. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.development.1110274.
Agustin, L.M. (2006). The Conundrum of Women’s Agency: Migrations and the Sex Industry. In M. O’Neill & R. Campbell (Eds.), Sex Work Now (pp. 116–140). Cullompton: Willan.
Agustin, L.M. (2007). Sex at the Margins: Migration, Labour Markets and the Rescue Industry. London: Zed Books.
Ambrosini, M. (2002). Comprate e vendute. Una ricerca su tratta e sfruttamento di donne straniere nel mercato della prostituzione. Milano: Franco Angeli.
Amnesty International (2020). Policing the Pandemic: Human Rights Violations in the Enforcement of COVID-19 Measures in Europe. (Amnesty International report EUR 01/2511/2020). https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/EUR0125112020ENGLISH.PDF.
Andrees, B., & van der Linden, M.N.J. (2005). Designing Trafficking Research from a Labour Market Perspective: The ILO Experience. International Migration, 43(1‐2), 55–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0020-7985.2005.00312.x
Andrijasevic, R. (2010). Migration, Agency and Citizenship in Sex Trafficking. Leicester: Palgrave Macmillan.
Andrijasevic R. (2021). Forced Labour in Supply Chains: Rolling Back the Debate on Gender, Migration and Sexual Commerce. European Journal of Women’s Studies, 28(4), 410–424. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F13505068211020791
Aronowitz, A. (2001). Smuggling and Trafficking in Human Beings: The Phenomenon, The Markets that Drive It and the Organisations that Promote It. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, 9(2), 163–195. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011253129328
Asongu, S., Usman, U., & Vo, X.V. (2020). The Novel Coronavirus (Covid-19): Theoretical and Practical Perspectives on Children, Women and Sex Trafficking. Health Care for Women International, 41(11-12), 1384–1397. https://doi.org/10.1080/07399332.2020.1849219
Azam, A., Adriaenssens, S., & Hendrickx, J. (2021). How Covid-19 Affects Prostitution Markets in the Netherlands and Belgium: Dynamics and Vulnerabilities under a Lockdown. European Societies, 23(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616696.2020.1828978
Baarda, C.S. (2016). Human Trafficking for Sexual Exploitation from Nigeria into Western Europe: The Role of Voodoo Rituals in the Functioning of a Criminal Network. European Journal of Criminology, 13(2), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477370815617188
Becucci, S., & Garosi, E. (2008) Corpi globali. La prostituzione in Italia. Firenze: Florence University Press.
Bertaux, D. (1997). Les récits de vie. Perspective ethnosociologique. Paris: Nathan.
Bertaux, D. (2000). L’enquête et ses méthodes: le récit de vie. Paris: Armand Colin.
Bertone, A.M. (2000). Sexual Trafficking in Women: International Political Economy and the Politics of Sex. Gender Issues, 18(1), 4–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-999-0020-x
Bimbi, F. (2001). Prostituzione, migrazioni e relazioni di genere. Polis, 15(1), 15–34. https://doi.org/10.1424/2865
Brubaker R. (2003). Ethnicity without Groups. European Journal of Sociology, 43(2), 163–189. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003975602001066
Burgos, C.R., & Plaza Del Pino, F.J. (2021). ‘Business Can’t Stop.’ Women Engaged in Prostitution during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Southern Spain: A Qualitative Study. Women’s Studies International Forum, 86, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2021.102477
Cabras, F. (2015). Il racket della prostituzione nigeriana a Torino e Genova. Strutture, strategie e trasformazioni. Polis, 29(3), 365–390. https://doi.org/10.1424/81363
Cabras, F. (2017). La criminalità organizzata nigeriana in Italia. Peculiarità, sviluppi e “generi criminali.” In N. dalla Chiesa (Ed.), Mafia globale. Le organizzazioni criminali nel mondo (pp. 99–128). Milano: Laurana.
Callander, D., Meunier, É., DeVeau, R., Grov, C., Donovan, B., Minichiello, V., Kim, J., & Duncan, D. (2020). Investigating the Effects of COVID-19 on Global Male Sex Work Populations: A Longitudinal Study of Digital Data. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 97(2), 93–98. https://doi.org/10.1136/sextrans-2020-054550
Campana, P. (2016). The Structure of Human Trafficking: Lifting the Bonnet on a Nigerian Trafficking Network. British Journal of Criminology, 56(1), 68–86. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azv027
Campani, G. (2000). Traffico a fini di sfruttamento sessuale e sex business nel nuovo contesto delle migrazioni internazionali. In F. Carchedi (Ed.), I colori della notte. Migrazioni, sfruttamento sessuale, esperienze di intervento sociale (pp. 39–75). Milano: Franco Angeli.
Campbell, R., Sanders, T., Scoular, J., Pitcher, J., & Cunningham, S. (2019). Risking Safety and Rights: Online Sex Work, Crimes and ‘Blended Safety Repertoires.’ The British Journal of Sociology, 70(4), 1539–1560. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-4446.12493
Carchedi, F., & Orfano, I. (2007). La tratta di persone in Italia. Evoluzione del fenomeno e ambiti di sfruttamento. Milano: Franco Angeli.
Carling, J. (2006). Migration, Human Smuggling and Trafficking from Nigeria to Europe. (IOM Migration Research Series no. 23). International Organization for Migration. https://publications.iom.int/books/mrs-no-23-migration-human-smuggling-and-trafficking-nigeria-europe
CENSIS (2020). La società italiana al 2020. (Censis Report no. 54) https://www.censis.it/rapporto-annuale/il-capitolo-%C2%ABla-societ%C3%A0-italiana-al-2020%C2%BB-del-54%C2%B0-rapporto-censis-sulla-situazione
Chin Phua, V., & Caras, A. (2008). Personal Brand in Online Advertisements: Comparing White and Brazilian Male Sex Workers. Sociological Focus, 41, 238–255. https://doi.org/10.1080/00380237.2008.10571333.
Chuang, J. (1998). Redirecting the Debate over Trafficking in Women: Definitions, Paradigms and Contexts. Harvard Human Rights Journal, 11, 65–107.
Cojocauru, C. (2016). My Experience is Mine to Tell: Challenging the Abolitionist Victimhood Framework. Anti Trafficking Review, 7, 12–38. https://doi.org/10.14197/atr.20121772
Corsaro, W.A. (1985) Friendship and Peer Culture in the Early Years. Norwood: Ablex.
Cunningham, S., & Kendall, T.D. (2011). Prostitution 2.0: The Changing Face of Sex Work. Journal of Urban Economics, 69(3), 273–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jue.2010.12.001
Danna, D. (2002). Lo sfruttamento della prostituzione. In Hrsg. M. Barbagli & U. Gatti (Eds.), La criminalità in Italia (pp. 149–158). Bologna: Il Mulino.
Derks, A. (2000). Combating Trafficking in South Asia. A Review of Policy and Programme Responses. (IOM Migration Research Series no 2). Internatiounal Organization for Migration. https://doi.org/10.18356/8ddd9af8-en
Dewey, S., & Zheng, T. (2013). Ethical Research with Sex Workers. Anthropological Approaches. London: Springer.
Di Nicola, A. (2010). Criminalità violenta degli stranieri nelle province italiane: uno studio esplicativo. Rassegna Italiana di Criminologia, 4(3), 513–525.
Doezema, J. (2009). Sex Slaves and Discourse of Masters: The Construction of Trafficking. London: Zed.
Dworkin, A. (1987). Intercourse. London: Secker and Warburg.
European Commission (2020). European Economic Forecast. (Institutional Paper 136). European Commission. https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/default/files/economy-finance/ip136_en_2.pdf
Fehrenbacher, A., Musto, J., Hoefinger, H., Mai, N., Macioti, P.G., Giametta, C., & Bennachie, C. (2020). Transgender People and Human Trafficking: Intersectional Exclusion of Transgender Migrants and People of Colour from Anti-Trafficking Protection in the United States. Journal of Human Trafficking, 6(2), 182–194. https://doi.org/10.1080/23322705.2020.1690116
Galantino, M.G. & Giovannetti, M. (2012). La stagione delle ordinanze sulla sicurezza. Il punto di vista degli attori coinvolti. Studi sulla Questione Criminale, 7(2), 55–82. https://doi.org/10.7383/71457
Gbagbo, F.Y. (2020). Experiences of Commercial Sex Workers during COVID-19 Restrictions in Selected Metropolises in Ghana. Health Care for Women International, 41(11-12), 1398–1409. https://doi.org/10.1080/07399332.2020.1822362
Giammarinaro, M.G. (2020). The Impact and Consequences of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Trafficked and Exploited Persons. (United Nations Human Rights Special Procedures COVID-19 Position paper). United Nations. https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Trafficking/COVID-19-Impact-trafficking.pdf
Giordano, C. (2008). Practices of Translations and the Making of Migrant Subjectivities in Contemporary Italy. American Ethnologist, 35(4), 588–606. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-1425.2008.00100.x
Giovannetti, M., & Zorzella, M. (2010). Lontano dallo sguardo lontano dal cuore delle città: la prostituzione di strada e le ordinanze dei sindaci. Mondi Migranti, 1, 47–82. https://doi.org/10.3280/MM2010-001003
Global Protection Cluster Anti-Trafficking Task Team (2020). Terms of Reference. Global Protection Cluster Anti-Trafficking Task Team. https://www.globalprotectioncluster.org/wp-content/uploads/Anti-Trafficking-Task-Team-2020-TORs_revised-May-2020.pdf
Hermondhalgh, D., & Baker, S. (2015). Sex, Gender and Work Segregation in the Cultural Industries. The Sociological Review, 63(1), 23–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-954X.12238.
Hillis, A., Leavey, C., Kewley, S., Church, S., & Van Hout, M.C. (2020) Sex Tourism, Disease Migration and COVID-19: Lessons Learnt and Best Practices Moving Forward. Journal of Travel Medicine, 27(7), 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1093/jtm/taaa144
ICRSE (2020). Subject: COVID-19 Impact on Sex Workers and Immediate Responses Needed from the European Commission. President Ursula von der Leyen European Commission 1049 Brussels.
Ingrascì, O. (2021). Gender and Organized Crime in Italy. Women’s Agency in Italian Mafias. London: Bloomsbury.
IOM (2015). Data and Research of Human Trafficking: A Global Survey. (IOM UN Migration report). International Organization for Migration. https://publications.iom.int/books/data-and-research-human-trafficking-global-survey
IOM (2020). The Impact of COVID-19 on Migrants. (UN Migration Factsheet no. 6). International Organization for Migration. https://www.iom.int/sites/default/files/our_work/ICP/MPR/migration_factsheet_6_covid19_and_migrants.pdf
ISTAT (2020). Impatto dell’epidemia COVID-19 sulla mortalità totale della popolazione residente — primo semestre 2020. Istituto Nazionale di Statistica, 4 May. https://www.istat.it/it/files//2020/05/Rapporto_Istat_ISS.pdf
Jeffreys, S. (1990). Anticlimax. London: The Women’s Press.
Jeffreys, S. (2009) . The Industrial Vagina. The Political Economy of the Global Sex Trade. New York, NY: Routledge.
Jones, S.V. (2010). The Invisible Man: The Conscious Neglect of Men and Boys in the War on Human Trafficking. Utah Law Review, 1143(2010).
Jozaghi, E., & Bird, L. (2020). COVID-19 and Sex Workers: Human Rights, the Struggle for Safety and Minimum Income. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 111, 406–407. https://doi.org/10.17269/s41997-020-00350-1.
Kandiyoti, D. (1988). Bargaining with Patriarchy. Gender and Society, 2(3), 274–90. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F089124388002003004
Kelly, L. (2005). ‘You Can Find Anything You Want’: A Critical Reflection on Research on Trafficking in Persons Within and into Europe. International Migration, 43(1‐2), 235–265. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0020-7985.2005.00319.x
Kempadoo, K. (2003). Globalizing Sex Workers’ Rights. Canadian Woman Studies, 22(3-4): 143–150. https://cws.journals.yorku.ca/index.php/cws/article/view/6426
Kempadoo, K., & Doezema, J. (2018). Global Sex Workers. Rights, Resistance, and Redefinition. London: Routledge.
Kimani, J., Adhiambo, J., Kasiba, R., Mwangi, P., Were, V., Mathenge, J., Macharia, P., Cholette, F., Moore, S., Shadow, S., Becker, M., Musyoki, H., Bhattacharjee, P., Moses, S., Fowke, K.R., McKinnon, L.R., & Lorway, R. (2020). The Effects of COVID-19 on the Health and Socioeconomic Security of Sex Workers in Nairobi, Kenya: Emerging Intersections with HIV. Global Public Health, 15(7), 1073–1082. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2020.1770831
Lam, E. (2020a). Pandemic Sex Workers’ Resilience: COVID-19 Crisis Met with Rapid Responses by Sex Worker Communities." International Social Work, 63(6), 777-781. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020872820962202
Lam, E. (2020b). Migrant Sex Workers Left Behind during COVID-19 Pandemic. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 111(1), 482–483. https://doi.org/10.17269/s41997-020-00377-4
Lam, E., & Fudge, J. (2020). Migrant Sex Workers and the Pandemic: Magnifying Inequality and Discrimination. The Law of Work, 5 June. https://lawofwork.ca/migrant-sex-workers/
Lee-Gonyea, J.A., Castle, T., & Gonyea, N.E. (2009). Laid to Order: Male Escorts Advertising on the Internet. Deviant Behaviour, 30(4), 321–348. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639620802168858
Luna, F. (2009). Elucidating the Concept of Vulnerability: Layers Not Labels. International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics, 2(1), 121–139. https://doi.org/10.3138/ijfab.2.1.121
Mai, N. (2012). Embodied Cosmopolitanism: The Subjective Mobility of Migrants Working in the Global Sex Industry. Gender Place and Culture. A Journal of Feminist Geography, 20(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/0966369X.2011.649350
Mai, N. (2016). “Too Much Suffering”: Understanding the Interplay Between Migration, Bounded Exploitation and Trafficking Through Nigerian Sex Workers’ Experiences. Sociological Research Online, 21(4), 13–34. https://doi.org/10.5153/sro.4158
Mancuso, M. (2014). Not All Madams Have a Central Role: Analysis of a Nigerian Sex Trafficking Network. Trends in Organized Crime, 17, 66–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12117-013-9199-z
Mansson, S.A. & Hedin, U.C. (1999). Breaking the Matthew Effect On Women Leaving Prostitution. International Journal of Social Welfare, 8(1), 67–77. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2397.00063
Massari, M. (2009). The Other and Her Body: Migrant Prostitution, Gender Relations and Ethnicity. Cahiers de L’Urmis, 12. https://doi.org/10.4000/urmis.787
Massari, M. (2017). Reconsidering Transnational Organized Crime in the Shadow of Globalization: the Case of Human Smuggling across the Mediterranean. In S. Carnevale, S. Forlati, & O. Giolo (Eds.) Redefining Organized Crime: A Challenge for the European Union? (pp. 75–92). Oxford/Portland: Hart.
Mazzarella, M., & Stradella, E. (2010). Le ordinanze sindacali per la sicurezza urbana in materia di prostituzione. Le regioni, 38(1-2), 237–276. https://doi.org/10.1443/32807
McPherson, M., Smith-Lovin, L., & Cook, J.M. (2001). Birds of a Feather: Homophily in Social Networks. Annual Review of Sociology, 27(1), 415–444. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.415
Meyers, D.T. (2002). Gender in the Mirror. Cultural Imagery and Women’s Agency. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Migrant Rights Network. (2020). Response and Recovery Must Ensure Migrant Rights. Migrant Rights Network. https://migrantrights.ca/covid19/
Minichiello, V., Scott, J., & Callander, D. (2013). New Pleasures and Old Dangers: Reinventing Male Sex Work. The Journal of Sex Research, 50(3-4), 263–275. https://doil.org/10.1080/00224499.2012.760189
Ministero del Lavoro e delle Politiche Sociali. (2020). La comunità nigeriana in Italia. Rapporto annuale sulla presenza dei migranti. Ministero del Lavoro e delle Politische Sociali. https://www.lavoro.gov.it/documenti-e-norme/studi-e-statistiche/Documents/Rapporti%20annuali%20sulle%20comunit%C3%A0%20migranti%20in%20Italia%20-%20anno%202020/Nigeria-rapporto-2020.pdf
Miriam, K. (2005). Stopping the Traffic in Women: Power, Agency and Abolition in Feminist Debates over Sex-Trafficking. Journal of Social Philosophy, 36(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9833.2005.00254.x
Monzini, P. (2002). Il mercato delle donne. Prostituzione, tratta e sfruttamento. Milano: Donzelli.
Monzini, P. (2005). Sex Traffic: Prostitution, Crime and Exploitation. London: Zed.
O’Connell Davidson, J. (1999). Prostitution, Power and Freedom. Cambridge: Polity Press.
O’Neill, M. (2001). Prostitution and Feminism. Towards a Politics of Feeling. Cambridge: Polity Press.
OSCE, ODIHR, & UN Women. (2020). Guidance: Addressing Emerging Human Trafficking Trends and Consequences of the COVID-19 Pandemic. OSCE, ODIHR, United Nations. https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/Headquarters/Attachments/Sections/Library/Publications/2020/Guidance-Addressing-emerging-human-trafficking-trends-and-consequences-of-the-COVID-19-pandemic-en.pdf
Palidda S. (2008). Mobilità umane. Introduzione alla sociologia delle migrazioni. Milano: Raffaello Cortina.
Pateman, D. (1983). Defending Prostitution: Charges Against Ericsson. Ethics, 93(3), 561–565. https://doi.org/10.1086/292467
Pateman, C. (1988). The Sexual Contract. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Platt, L., Elmes, J., Stevenson, L., Holt, V., Rolles, S., & Stuart, R. (2020). Sex Workers Must Not Be Forgotten in the COVID-19 Response. The Lancet, 396(10243). https://doi.org/10.1086/292467
Ruggiero, V. (1997). Trafficking in Human Beings: Slave in Contemporary Europe. International Journal of Sociology of Law, 25, 231–244. https://doi.org/10.1006/ijsl.1997.0042
Salt, J., & Hogarth, J. (2000). Migrant Trafficking and Human Smuggling in Europe: A Review of the Evidence. In F. Laczko & D. Thompson (Eds.) Migrant Trafficking and Human Smuggling in Europe: a Review of Evidence with Case Studies from Hungary, Poland and Ukraine (pp. 11-164). Geneva: OIM.
Santosa B., Siqueira, I., Oliveira, C., Murray, L., Blanchette, T., Bonomi, C., da Silva, A. P., & Simões, S. (2021). Sex Work, Essential Work: A Historical and (Necro)Political Analysis of Sex Work in Times of COVID-19 in Brazil. Social Sciences, 10(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci10010002
Sarkar, S. (2020). Sex Trafficking in India: The Politics and Effects of COVID 19 Pandemic. (Research proposal). http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.17077.01760/1
Schatzman, L., & Strauss, A.L. (1973). Field Research: Strategies for a Natural Sociology. New York, NY: Prentice Hall.
Scoular, J., & O’Neill, M. (2007). Regulating Prostitution: Social Inclusion, Responsibilization and the Politics of Prostitution Reform. The British Journal of Criminology, 47(5), 764–778. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azm014
Shaver, F.M. (2005). Sex Work Research: Methodological and Ethical Challenges. Journal of interpersonal violence, 20(3), 296–319. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260504274340
Shoaps, L. (2013). Room for Improvement: Palermo Protocol and the Trafficking Victims Protection Act. Lewis & Clark Law Review, 17, 931–972. https://law.lclark.edu/live/files/15325-lcb173art6shoaps.pdf
Singer, R., Crooks, N., Johnson, A.K., Lutnick, A., & Matthews, A. (2020). COVID-19 Prevention and Protecting Sex Workers: A Call to Action. Archives of Sexual Behaviors, 49, 2739–2741. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01849-x
Stevenson, L. (2020). COVID-19 Impact on Sex Workers and Immediate Responses Needed from the European Commission, Letter to Ursula von der Leyen. European Commission. http://redlightcovideurope.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Letter_ICRSE_COVID-19-2.pdf
Sutherland, K. (2004). Work, Sex, and Sex-Work: Competing Feminist Discourses on the International Sex Trade. Osgoode Hall Law Journal, 42(1), 139–167. https://ssrn.com/abstract=1586863
SWAN (2020). SWAN Statement on COVID-19 and Demands of Sex Workers. Sex Workers Rights Advocacy Network. https://swannet.org/swan-statement-on-covid-19-and-demands-of-sex-workers/
Taliani, S. (2019). Il tempo della disobbedienza. Per un’antropologia della parentela nella migrazione. Verona: Ombre Corte.
Todres, J., & Diaz, A. (2021). COVID-19 and Human Trafficking–the Amplified Impact on Vulnerable Populations. JAMA Pedriatics, 175(2), 123–124. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.3610
Truong, T.D. (2001). Human Trafficking and Organized Crime (Institute of Social Studies, Working Papers Series no.v339). Institute of Social Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam. https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:ems:euriss:19084
UNAIDS (2020). Feature Story: COVID-19 Must Uphold and Protect the Human Rights of Sex Workers. UNAIDS, 24 April. https://www.unaids.org/en/resources/presscentre/featurestories/2020/april/20200424_sex-work
UNODC (2020a). Impact of the Covid-19 Pandemic on Trafficking in Persons. Preliminary Findings and Messaging Based on Rapid Stocktaking. (UNODC report). United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. https://www.unodc.org/documents/Advocacy-Section/HTMSS_Thematic_Brief_on_COVID-19.pdf
UNODC (2020b). Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2020. (UNODC report). United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. https://www.unodc.org/unodc/data-and-analysis/glotip.html
Uy, R. (2011). Blinded by Red Lights: Why Trafficking Discourse should shift away from Sex and the Perfect Victim Paradigm. Berkeley Journal of Gender, 26(1), 204–219. http://dx.doi.org/10.15779/Z38QV3C34F
Weitzer, R. (2005). Flawed Theory and Method in Studies of Prostitution. Violence Against Women, 11: 934–949. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801205276986
Weitzer, R. (2007a). Prostitution as a Form of Work. Sociology Compass. 1(1), 143–155. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9020.2007.00010.x
Weitzer, R. (2007b). The Social Construction of Sex Trafficking. Ideology and Institutionalization of a Moral Crusade. Politics & Society, 353, 447–475. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032329207304319
Weitzer, R. (2009). Sex for Sale. Prostitution, Pornography, and Sex Industry. New York, NY: Routledge.
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2022 Federica Cabras, Ombretta Ingrascì
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.