The Super-rich: Origin, Reproduction, and Social Acceptance

Authors

  • Luca Storti Department of Cultures, Politics and Society, University of Turin https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3942-6477
  • Joselle Dagnes Department of Cultures, Politics and Society, University of Turin https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9024-5594

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1971-8853/13546

Keywords:

Super-rich, wealth concentration, social acceptance of super-rich, super-rich and social spaces

Abstract

What is the sociological understanding of the super-rich? To address this question, we propose and further elaborate three interconnected lines of investigation. After highlighting some plausible criteria for identifying the super-rich, we deal first with the generative and reproductive mechanisms underpinning the huge wealth concentration emerging over the last decades. Second, we dissect the nexus between the super-rich and places, i.e., how the super-rich shape the spaces to implement their housing strategies, consumption patterns, and lifestyle. By doing so, we will also show how the super-rich transform spaces into social arenas in which they stand out through an original form of distinction made up of recognition and invisibility. Third, we will focus on the dynamics and the behaviours that help the super-rich gain social acceptance. This three-step analysis allows us to pinpoint in the conclusions some regressive outcomes in economic, social, and political terms fostered by the increasing concentration of private wealth.

References

Alvaredo, F., Atkinson, A.B., Piketty, T., & Saez, E. (2013). The Top 1 Percent in International and Historical Perspective. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 27(3), 3–20. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.27.3.3

Anderson, S. (2021). How CEOs Pumped Up Their Pandemic Paychecks. Newsweek, 26 May. https://www.newsweek.com/how-ceos-pumped-their-pandemic-paychecks-opinion-1594725

Askenazy, P. (2021). Share the Wealth: How to End Rentier Capitalism. London & New York: Verso.

Atkinson, A.B. (2015). Inequality. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674287013

Atkinson, R. (2000). The Hidden Costs of Gentrification: Displacement in Central London. Journal of Housing and Built Environment, 15(4), 307–326. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010128901782

Atkinson, R. (2015). The Super-Rich in London: They Live amongst Us, but You Won’t Run into Them (If They Can Help It). LSE British Politics and Policy, 25 August. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/politicsandpolicy/a-seamless-floating-space-mobility-the-super-rich-and-london/

Atkinson, R. (2018). Necrotecture: Lifeless Dwellings and London’s Super-Rich. International Journal of Urban and Research, 43(1), 2–13. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2427.12707

Atkinson, R. (2020a). Alpha City. How London Was Captured by the Super-Rich. London & New York: Verso.

Atkinson, R. (2020b). London: Life Support System of the Super-Rich. Verso Books Blog, 18 June. https://www.versobooks.com/blogs/4740-london-life-support-system-of-the-super-rich

Bach, L., Calvet, L.E., & Sodini, P. (2020). Rich Pickings? Risk, Return, and Skill in Household Wealth. American Economic Review, 110(9), 2703–2747. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20170666

Bagnasco, A. (2016). La questione del ceto medio. Un racconto del cambiamento sociale. Bologna: Il Mulino.

Barbera, F., Dagnes, J., & Salento, A. (2016). Investigating Élites. Relationships, Spaces, Rituals. An Introduction. Sociologica, 10(2), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.2383/85288

BBC News. (2021). Liverpool Stripped of Unesco World Heritage Status. 21 July. https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-merseyside-57879475

Bonney, E. (2020). Book Review: Billionaire Wilderness: The Ultra-Wealthy and the Remaking of the American West by Justin Farrell. LSE Phelan US Centre, 16 August. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/usappblog/2020/08/16/book-review-billionaire-wilderness-the-ultra-wealthy-and-the-remaking-of-the-american-west-by-justin-farrell/

Brockmann, H., Drews, W., & Torpey, J. (2021). A Class for Itself? On the Worldviews of the New Tech Elite. PLoS ONE, 16(1), e0244071. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.024407

Bruno, I., & Salle, G. (2018). “Before Long There Will Be Nothing but Billionaires!” The Power of Elites over Space on the Saint-Tropez Peninsula. Socio-Economic Review, 16(2), 435–458. https://doi.org/10.1093/ser/mwy016

Butler, T., & Lees, L. (2006). Super‐Gentrification in Barnsbury, London: Globalization and Gentrifying Global Elites at the Neighbourhood Level. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 31(4), 467–487. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5661.2006.00220.x

Chen, S. (2021). The Downside to Life in a Supertall Tower: Leaks, Creaks, Breaks. The New York Times, 4 May. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/03/realestate/luxury-high-rise-432-park.html

Christophers, B. (2020). Rentier Capitalism: Who Owns the Economy, and Who Pays for It? London & New York: Verso.

Coleridge, S.T. (2014). Biographia Literaria. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. (Original work published 1817)

Cousin, B., Chauvin, S. (2021). Is There a Global Super Bourgeoisie? Sociology Compass, 15(6), e12883. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12883

Cousin, B., & Chauvin, S. (2017). Old Money, Networks and Distinction: The Social and Service Clubs of Milan’s Upper Classes. In R. Forrest, S.Y. Koh, & B. Wissink (Eds.), Cities and the Super-Rich. Real Estate, Elite Practices and Urban Political Economies (pp. 147–165). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-54834-4_8

Cousin, B., Khan, S., & Mears, A. (2018). Theoretical and Methodological Pathways for Research on Elites. Socio-Economic Review, 16(2), 225–249. https://doi.org/10.1093/ser/mwy019

Crédit Suisse (2021). Global Wealth Report 2021. Credit Suisse Research Institute. https://www.credit-suisse.com/media/assets/corporate/docs/about-us/research/publications/global-wealth-report-2021-en.pdf

Crouch, C. (2011). The Strange Non-Death of Neo-Liberalism. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Curran, D. (2015). Risk Illusion and Organized Irresponsibility in Contemporary Finance: Rethinking Class and Risk Society. Economy and Society, 44(3), 392–417. https://doi.org/10.1080/03085147.2015.1044850

Curran, D. (2021). Risk Mismatches and Inequalities: Oil and Gas and Elite Risk-Classes in the US and Canada. Sociologica, 15(2), 57-74. https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1971-8853/12395

Dagnes, J., Filandri, M., & Storti, L. (2018). Social Class and Wealth Inequality in Italy over 20 Years, 1993–2014. Journal of Modern Italian Studies, 23(2), 176–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/1354571X.2018.1427945

Demir, F. (2007). The Rise of Rentier Capitalism and the Financialization of Real Sectors in Developing Countries. Review of Radical Political Economics, 39(3), 351–359. https://doi.org/10.1177/0486613407305283

Dolan, K.A, Wang, J., & Peterson-Withorn, C. (Eds.). (2021). Forbes World’s Billionaires List. The Richest in 2021. https://www.forbes.com/billionaires/

Farrel, J. (2021). Billionaire Wilderness: The Ultra-Wealthy and the Remaking of the American West. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Florida, R. (2002). The Rise of the Creative Class: And How It’s Transforming Work, Leisure, Community and Everyday Life. New York: Perseus Book Group.

Forrest, R., Koh, S.Y., & Wissink, B. (Eds.) (2017). Cities and the Super- Rich: Real Estate, Elite Practices, and Urban Political Economies. New York: Palgrave.

Franzini, M. (2010). Ricchi e poveri. L’Italia e le disuguaglianze (in)accettabili. Milano: Egea.

Franzini, M., Granaglia, E., & Raitano, M. (2016). Extreme Inequalities in Contemporary Capitalism. Should We Be Concerned about the Rich?. New York: Springer.

Freund, C., & Oliver, S. (2016). The Origins of the Superrich: The Billionaire Characteristics Database. Peterson Institute for International Economics Working Paper, 16(1). http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2731353

Gamage, D. (2019). Five Key Research Findings On Wealth Taxation for the Super Rich. Unpublished Paper, 1–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3427827

Genschel, P., & Schwarz, P. (2011). Tax Competition: A Literature Review. Socio-Economic Review, 9(2), 339–370. https://doi.org/10.1093/ser/mwr004

Gilens, M. (2012). Affluence and Influence. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Godechot, O. (2016). Wages, Bonuses and Appropriation of Profit in the Financial Industry: The Working Rich. London & New York: Routledge.

Hamnett, C. (2019). Ray Forrest, Sin Yee Koh and Bart Wissink (eds.) 2017: Cities and the Super-Rich: Real Estate, Elite Practices, and Urban Political Economies. New York: Palgrave. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 43(6), 1209–1210. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2427.12861

Harrington, B. (2012). From Trustees to Wealth Managers. In G. Erreygers & J. Cunliffe (Eds.), Inherited Wealth, Justice and Equality, (pp. 190–209). London & New York: Routledge.

Harrington, B. (2016). Capital without Borders. Wealth Managers and the One Percent. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Harrington, B. (2017). Trusts and Financialization. Socio-Economic Review, 15(1), 31–63. https://doi.org/10.1093/ser/mww014

Hay, I., & Muller, S. (2012). “That Tiny, Stratospheric Apex That Owns Most of the World”. Exploring Geographies of the Super-Rich. Geographical Research, 50(1), 75–88. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-5871.2011.00739.x

Hedström, P. (2005). Dissecting the Social: On the Principles of Analytical Sociology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

International Monetary Fund (2021). World Economic Outlook. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/Issues/2021/07/27/world-economic-outlook-update-july-2021

Keister, L.A. (2014). The One Percent. Annual Review of Sociology, 40, 347–367. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-070513-075314

Keister, L.A. (2018). Income and Wealth Are Not Highly Correlated: Here Is Why and What It Means. Work in Progress, 29 October. http://www.wipsociology.org/2018/10/29/income-and-wealth-are-not-highly-correlated-here-is-why-and-what-it-means/

Keister, L.A., & Lee, H.Y. (2017). The Double One Percent: Identifying an Elite and a Super-Elite Using the Joint Distribution of Income and Net Worth. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 50, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rssm.2017.03.004

Keister, L., Yavorsky, J., & Lee, H.Y (2021). Gender and Wealth in the Super Rich: Asset Differences in Top Wealth Households in the United States, 1989–2019. Sociologica, 15(2), 25-55. https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1971-8853/12394

Kets de Vries, M.F.R. (2021). Do you Really Want to Become a Billionaire? A Look Inside the Inner Theatre of the Super-rich. INSEAD Working Paper No. 2021/30/EFE. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3855321

Khan, S. (2016). The Many Futures of Élites Research. A Comment on the Symposium. Sociologica, 10(2), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.2383/85294

Krippner, G. (2005). The Financialization of the American Economy. Socio-Economic Review, 3(2), 173–208. https://doi.org/10.1093/SER/mwi008

Krippner, G. (2011). Capitalizing on Crisis: The Political Origins of the Rise of Finance. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Krueger, A. (2012). The Rise and Consequences of Inequality. Presentation made to the Center for American Progress, January 12th.

Krugman, P. (2007). The Conscience of a Liberal. New York: W.W. Norton.

Liu, T., & Li, M. (2020). Leisure & Travel as Class Signifier: Distinction Practices of China's New Rich. Tourism Management Perspectives, 33, 100627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2019.100627

Mazzucato, M. (2013). The Entrepreneurial State: Debunking Public vs. Private Sector Myths. London: Anthem Press.

McGoey, L. (2012). Philanthrocapitalism and Its Critics. Poetics, 40(2), 185–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.poetic.2012.02.006

McGoey, L. (2015). No Such Thing as a Free Gift: The Gates Foundation and the Price of Philanthropy. London & New York: Verso.

McGoey, L. (2021a). Why Billionaires Like Bill Gates Can’t Fix the Problems They Helped Create. The New York Times, 25 May. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/25/opinion/bill-melinda-gates-foundation.html

McGoey, L. (2021b). Hiding the Rentier Elephant in Plain Sight: The Epistemology of Vanishing Rent. Sociologica, 15(2), 75-93. https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1971-8853/12720

McGoey, L., & Thiel, D. (2018). Charismatic Violence and the Sanctification of the Super-Rich. Economy and Society, 47(1), 111–134. https://doi.org/10.1080/03085147.2018.1448543

Merton, R.K. (1968). Social Theory and Social Structure. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Milanovic, B. (2010). The Haves and the Have-Nots: A Brief and Idiosyncratic History of Global Inequality. New York: Basic Books.

Milanovic, B. (2019). Capitalism, Alone: The Future of the System That Rules the World. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Mizruchi, M.S. (2016). The Resurgence of Élite Research: Promise and Prospects. A Comment on the Symposium. Sociologica, 10(2), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.2383/85293

Oxfam (2021). The Inequality Virus. Bringing Together a World Torn Apart by Coronavirus Through a Fair, Just and Sustainable Economy. https://oxfamilibrary.openrepository.com/bitstream/handle/10546/621149/bp-the-inequality-virus-250121-en.pdf

Page, B., Bartels, L., & Seawright, J. (2013). Democracy and the Policy Preferences of Wealthy Americans. Perspectives on Politics, 11(1), 51–73. https://doi.org/10.1017/S153759271200360X

Piketty, T. (2013). Le capital au XXIe siècle. Le Seuil: Paris.

Powell, W.W., & DiMaggio, P.J. (Eds.). (1991). The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Ranald, M. (2014). Financial Capitalism. In L. Neal & J. Williamson (Eds.), The Cambridge History of Capitalism. Volume II: The Spread of Capitalism: From 1848 to the Present, (pp. 230–263). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Reich, R. (2018). Just Giving: Why Philanthropy Is Failing Democracy and How It Can Do Better. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Sadowski, J. (2020). The Internet of Landlords: Digital Platforms and New Mechanisms of Rentier Capitalism. Antipode, 52(2), 562–580. https://doi.org/10.1111/anti.12595

Saez, E., & Zucman, G. (2019). The Triumph of Injustice. How the Rich Dodge Taxes and How to Make them Pay. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.

Saez, E., & Zucman, G. (2021). How to Get $1 Trillion from 1000 Billionaires: Tax their Gains Now. Berkeley: University of California.

Sassen, S. (1995). The State and the Global City: Notes towards a Conception of Place-Centered Governance. Competition & Change, 1(1), 31–50. https://doi.org/10.1177/102452949500100103

Sassen, S. (2014). Expulsions. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Savage, M., Warde, A., & Devine, F. (2007). Comment on John Goldthorpe/3. Sociologica, 1(2), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.2383/24758

Sayer, A. (2015). Why We Can’t Afford the Rich. Bristol: Policy Press.

Sayer, A. (2020). Rentiership, Improperty and Moral Economy. Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/0308518X20908287

Scheidel, W. (2017). The Great Leveler: Violence and the Global History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Present. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Scheuer, F., & Slemrod, J. (2020). Taxation and the Superrich. Annual Review of Economy, 12, 189–211. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-economics-081919-115106

Scott, P., & Walker, J.T. (2020). The Comfortable, the Rich, and the Super-Rich. What Really Happened to Top British Incomes during the First Half of the Twentieth Century? The Journal of Economic History, 80(1), 40–68. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022050719000767

Semi, G. (2015). Gentrification. Tutte le città come Disneyland?. Bologna: Il Mulino.

Serafini, P., & Smith Maguire, J. (2019). Questioning the Super-Rich. Representations, Structures, Experiences. Cultural Politics, 15(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1215/17432197-7289444

Sherman, R. (2018). “A Very Expensive Ordinary Life”: Consumption, Symbolic Boundaries and Moral Legitimacy among New York Elites. Socio-Economic Review, 16(2), 411–433. https://doi.org/10.1093/ser/mwy011

Sherman, R. (2019). Uneasy Street. The Anxieties of Affluence. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Sherman, R. (2021). Against Accumulation: Class Traitors Challenge Wealth and Worth. Sociologica, 15(2), 117-142. https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1971-8853/12558

Sklair, J., & Glucksberg, L. (2021). Philanthrocapitalism as Wealth Management Strategy: Philanthropy, Inheritance and Succession Planning among the Global Elite. The Sociological Review, 69(2), 314–329. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038026120963479

Skopek, N. (2015). Wealth as a Distinct Dimension of Social Inequality, (Vol. 14). Bamberg: University of Bamberg Press.

Smeets, P., Whillans, A., Bekkers, R., & Norton, M.I. (2020). Time Use and Happiness of Millionaires: Evidence from the Netherlands. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 11(3), 295–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550619854751

Standing, G. (2021). The Corruption of Capitalism: Why Rentiers Thrive and Work does not Pay. London: Biteback.

Streeck, W. (2016). How Will Capitalism End? Essays on a Failing System. London & New York: Verso.

Tobias Neely, M. (2018). Fit to Be King: How Patrimonialism on Wall Street Leads to Inequality. Socio-Economic Review, 16(2), 365–385. https://doi.org/10.1093/ser/mwx058

Tonkiss, F. (2005). Space, the City and Social Theory: Social Relations and Urban forms. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Torpey, J., Brockmann, H., & Hendricks, B. (2021). Excess Profits, Taxpayer-Subsidized Philanthropy, and the Coronavirus Crisis: Charitable Giving by the Tech Elite in Response to the Pandemic. Sociologica, 15(2), https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1971-8853/12435

Travers, M. (2019). How Do the Very Wealthy Choose to Spend Their Time?. Forbes, 13 July. https://www.forbes.com/sites/traversmark/2019/07/13/how-do-the-very-wealthy-choose-to-spend-their-time/?sh=1ada91de2ca1

Trigilia, C. (Eds.) (2020). Capitalismi e democrazie. Si possono conciliare crescita e uguaglianza?. Bologna: Il Mulino.

Volscho, T.W., & Kelly, N.J. (2012). The Rise of the Super-Rich: Power Resources, Taxes Financial Markets, and the Dynamics of the Top 1 Percent, 1949 to 2008. American Sociological Review, 77(5), 679–699. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122412458508

Wakefield, S. (2017). Arts and the Super-Rich: Emerging Relations in the Gulf and the East. In R. Forrest, S.Y. Koh, & B. Wissink (Eds.), Cities and the Super-Rich. Real Estate, Elite Practices and Urban Political Economies (pp. 167–185). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Wealth-X (2021). World Ultra Wealth Report 2021. https://go.wealthx.com/world-ultra-wealth-report-2021

Zucman, G. (2015). The Hidden Wealth of Nations. The Scourge of Tax Havens. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Zukin, S. (1989). Loft Living: Culture and Capital in Urban Change. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.

Zukin, S. (2000). Naked City: The Death and Life of Authentic Urban Places. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Downloads

Published

2021-09-30

How to Cite

Storti, L., & Dagnes, J. (2021). The Super-rich: Origin, Reproduction, and Social Acceptance. Sociologica, 15(2), 5–23. https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1971-8853/13546

Issue

Section

Symposium