The Ghost of Middle Management: Automation, Control, and Heterarchy in the Platform Firm
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1971-8853/16415Keywords:
Gig economy, Management, Organizations, Configuration, LaborAbstract
In an effort to attend to the distinct organizational form of algorithmic management, we interrogate the arrangement of platform labor through the lens of the post-bureaucratic organization instead of that of the industrialized factory. Prior studies of gig workers rely heavily on sociological accounts of factory labor, but we posit that gig economy platforms represent a heterarchical organizational form, marrying the logics of industrial control induced by computational systems with the logics of post-bureaucracy inherited from flattening firms and downsizing middle management. In a technique we describe as automation by omission, we show how middle-managerial roles and responsibilities are excised entirely from the platform firm, how the vestigial traces of such roles are only imperfectly replaced by technical systems, and how “situated” managerial tasks essential to post-bureaucratic organizations are picked up by the worker, uncompensated. This heterarchical arrangement benefits the firm in multiple ways, while its competing structural conditions of labor leave workers to navigate multiple valuation systems at once. Appreciating gig work’s embedded post-bureaucracy shifts our understanding of common worker experiences such as peer-to-peer organizing and just-in-time scheduling illuminates dissonant accounts of empowerment and algorithmic despotism, and exposes new avenues for worker disenfranchisement.
References
Alvarez de la Vega, J.C., Cecchinato, M.E., Rooksby, J., & Newbold, J. (2023). Understanding Platform Mediated Work-Life: A Diary Study with Gig Economy Freelancers. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 7, 1–32. https://doi.org/10.1145/3579539
Aneesh, A. (2009). Global Labor: Algocratic Modes of Organization. Sociological Theory, 27(4), 347–370. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9558.2009.01352.x
Ashton, D.N., Sung, J., & Office, I.L. (2002). Supporting Workplace Learning for High Performance Working. Geneva: International Labour Office.
Bailey, D.E., Leonardi, P.M., & Chong, J. (2010). Minding the Gaps: Understanding Technology Interdependence and Coordination in Knowledge Work. Organization Science, 21(3), 713–730. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.1090.0473
Batt, R. (1996). From Bureaucracy to Enterprise? The Changing Jobs and Careers of Managers in Telecommunications Service. In P. Osterman (Ed.), Broken Ladders: Managerial Careers in the New Economy (pp. 55–80). Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195093537.003.0003
Beckert, J., & Bronk, R. (Eds.). (2018). Uncertain Futures: Imaginaries, Narratives, and Calculation in the Economy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198820802.001.0001
Braverman, H. (1974). Labor and Monopoly Capital. The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century. New York, NY: Monthly Review Press. https://doi.org/10.14452/MR-026-03-1974-07_1
Brayne, S., & Christin, A. (2021). Technologies of Crime Prediction: The Reception of Algorithms in Policing and Criminal Courts. Social Problems, 68(3), 608–624. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spaa004
Burawoy, M. (1979). Manufacturing Consent: Changes in the Labor Process Under Monopoly Capitalism. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Burawoy, M. (1985). The Politics of Production: Factory Regimes Under Capitalism and Socialism. London: Verso.
Burns, L.R. (1989). Matrix Management in Hospitals: Testing Theories of Matrix Structure and Development. Administrative Science Quarterly, 34(3), 349–368. https://doi.org/10.2307/2393148
Camerer, C., Babcock, L., Loewenstein, G., & Thaler, R. (1997). Labor Supply of New York City Cabdrivers: One Day at a Time. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 112(2), 407–441. https://doi.org/10.1162/003355397555244
Cameron, L.D. (2022). “Making Out” While Driving: Relational and Efficiency Games in the Gig Economy. Organization Science, 33(1), 231–252. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2021.1547
Cameron, L.D. (2024). The Making of the “Good Bad” Job: How Algorithmic Management Manufactures Consent Through Constant and Confined Choices. Administrative Science Quarterly, 69(2), 458–514. https://doi.org/10.1177/00018392241236163
Cameron, L.D., & Rahman, H. (2022). Expanding the Locus of Resistance: Understanding the Co-constitution of Control and Resistance in the Gig Economy. Organization Science, 33(1), 38–58. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2021.1557
Canales, R. (2011). Rule Bending, Sociological Citizenship, and Organizational Contestation in Microfinance. Regulation & Governance, 5(1), 90–117. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5991.2010.01095.x
Chandler, A.D. (1977). The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Cohen, M.D., Burkhart, R., Dosi, G., Egidi, M., Marengo, L., Warglien, M., & Winter, S. (1996). Routines and Other Recurring Action Patterns of Organizations: Contemporary Research Issues. Industrial and Corporate Change, 5(3), 653–698. https://doi.org/10.1093/icc/5.3.653
Cutolo, D., & Kenney, M. (2021). Platform-dependent Entrepreneurs: Power Asymmetries, Risks, and Strategies in the Platform Economy. Academy of Management Perspectives, 35(4), 584–605. https://doi.org/10.5465/amp.2019.0103
Dalal, S., Chiem, N., Karbassi, N., Liu, Y., & Monroy-Hernández, A. (2023). Understanding Human Intervention in the Platform Economy: A Case Study of an Indie Food Delivery Service. In A. Schmidt, K. Väänänen, & T. Goyal (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2023 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 1–16). New York, NY: Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/3544548.3581517
Daminger, A. (2019). The Cognitive Dimension of Household Labor. American Sociological Review, 84(4), 609–633. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122419859007
Davis, S.M., & Lawrence, P.R. (1979). Problems of Matrix Organizations. In R. Hill & B.J. White (Eds.), Matrix Organization & Project Management (pp. 134–151). Ann Arbor, MI: Division of Research, Graduate School of Business Administration, University of Michigan.
Delfanti, A., & Frey, B. (2020). Humanly Extended Automation or the Future of Work Seen through Amazon Patents. Science, Technology, & Human Values, 46(3), 655–682. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162243920943665
Dowding, K. (2015). Albert O. Hirschman, Exit, Voice and Loyalty: Responses to Decline in Firms, Organizations, and States. In M. Lodge, E.C. Page, & S.J. Balla (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Classics in Public Policy and Administration (pp. 256–271). Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199646135.013.30
Dubal, V.B. (2017). Wage Slave or Entrepreneur?: Contesting the Dualism of Legal Worker Identities. California Law Review, 105(1), 65–123. https://repository.uclawsf.edu/faculty_scholarship/1596
Enriquez, D. (2021). Delivery Gig Worker Interviews on Automation at Work [Dataset]. Princeton University. https://doi.org/10.34770/4324-yn77
Freeland, R., & Zuckerman Sivan, E. (2018). The Problems and Promise of Hierarchy: Voice Rights and the Firm. Sociological Science, 5, 143–181. https://doi.org/10.15195/v5.a7
Girard, M., & Stark, D. (2003). Heterarchies of Value in Manhattan-Based New Media Firms. Theory, Culture & Society, 20(3), 77–105. https://doi.org/10.1177/02632764030203006
Goldstein, A. (2012). Revenge of the Managers: Labor Cost-Cutting and the Paradoxical Resurgence of Managerialism in the Shareholder Value Era, 1984 to 2001. American Sociological Review, 77(2), 268–294. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122412440093
Gray, M.L., & Suri, S. (2019). Ghost Work: How to Stop Silicon Valley from Building a New Global Underclass. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Griesbach, K., Reich, A., Elliott-Negri, L., & Milkman, R. (2019). Algorithmic Control in Platform Food Delivery Work. Socius, 5. https://doi.org/10.1177/2378023119870041
Haraway, D.J. (1991). Simians, Cyborgs, and Women: The Reinvention of Nature. London: Routledge.
Heckscher, C.C., & Adler, P.S. (Eds.). (2006). The Firm as a Collaborative Community: Reconstructing Trust in the Knowledge Economy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199286034.001.0001
Heckscher, C.C., & Donnellon, A. (Eds.). (1994). The Post-Bureaucratic Organization: New Perspectives on Organizational Change. New York, NY: Sage Publications.
Hinds, P., & von Krogh, G. (2024). Generative AI, Emerging Technology, and Organizing: Towards a Theory of Progressive Encapsulation. Organization Theory, 5(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/26317877241293478
Hyman, L. (2018). Temp: The Real Story of What Happened to Your Salary, Benefits, and Job Security. London: Penguin.
Irani, L., & Silberman, M.S. (2013). Turkopticon: Interrupting Worker Invisibility in Amazon Mechanical Turk. In W.E. Mackay (Ed.), Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems - CHI ’13 (pp. 611–620). New York, NY: Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/2470654.2470742
Jarrahi, M.H., Newlands, G., Lee, M.K., Wolf, C.T., Kinder, E., & Sutherland, W. (2021). Algorithmic Management in a Work Context. Big Data & Society, 8(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517211020332
Kellogg, K.C. (2014). Brokerage Professions and Implementing Reform in an Age of Experts. American Sociological Review, 79(5), 912–941. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122414544734
Kellogg, K.C., Orlikowski, W.J., & Yates, J. (2006). Life in the Trading Zone: Structuring Coordination across Boundaries in Postbureaucratic Organizations. Organization Science, 17(1), 22–44. https://doi.org/10.2307/25146011
Kellogg, K.C., Valentine, M., & Christin, A. (2020). Algorithms at Work: The New Contested Terrain of Control. The Academy of Management Annals, 14(1), 366–410. https://doi.org/10.5465/annals.2018.0174
Kunda, G. (1992). Engineering Culture: Control and Commitment in a High-Tech Corporation. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
Kunda, G., & Barley, S.R. (2006). Gurus, Hired Guns, and Warm Bodies Itinerant Experts in a Knowledge Economy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Kunda, G., Barley, S.R., & Evans, J. (2002). Why Do Contractors Contract? The Experience of Highly Skilled Technical Professionals in a Contingent Labor Market. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 55(2), 234–261. https://doi.org/10.2307/2696207
Lambert, C. (2015). Shadow Work: The Unpaid, Unseen Jobs That Fill Your Day. Berkeley, CA: Counterpoint.
Langlois, R.N. (2023). The Corporation and the Twentieth Century: The History of American Business Enterprise. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780691247526
Lee, M.K. (2018). Understanding Perception of Algorithmic Decisions: Fairness, Trust, and Emotion in Response to Algorithmic Management. Big Data & Society, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/2053951718756684
Levy, K. (2024). Data Driven: Truckers, Technology, and the New Workplace Surveillance (Reprint ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1353/book.109251
Levy, K.E.C. (2015). The Contexts of Control: Information, Power, and Truck-Driving Work. The Information Society, 31(2), 160–174. https://doi.org/10.1080/01972243.2015.998105
Lordan, G., & Neumark, D. (2017). People Versus Machines: The Impact of Minimum Wages on Automatable Jobs (Working Paper 23667; Working Paper Series). National Bureau of Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.3386/w23667
MacDuffie, J.P. (1996). Automotive White-Collar: The Changing Status and Roles of Salaried Employees in the North American Auto Industry. In P. Osterman (Ed.), Broken Ladders: Managerial Careers in the New Economy (pp. 81–125). Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195093537.003.0004
Maffie, M.D. (2022). The Perils of Laundering Control through Customers: A Study of Control and Resistance in the Ride-hail Industry. ILR Review, 75(2), 348–372. https://doi.org/10.1177/0019793920972679
Maffie, M.D. (2024). Adversaries or Cross-Organization Co-workers? Exploring the Relationship between Gig Workers and Conventional Employees. ILR Review, 77(1), 3–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/00197939231194254
Marx, K. (2008). Das Kapital. Kritik der politischen Ökonomie. Band 1-3. Berlin: Karl Dietz. (Original work published 1867-1894)
McCaffrey, M. (2023). Who’s the Boss? The Persistence of Entrepreneurial Hierarchy in Flat Organizations. Journal of Organization Design, 12(1–2), 37–40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41469-022-00132-8
McCann, L., Morris, J., & Hassard, J. (2008). Normalized Intensity: The New Labour Process of Middle Management. Journal of Management Studies, 45(2), 343–371. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6486.2007.00762.x
Merchant, B. (2023). Blood in the Machine: The Origins of the Rebellion Against Big Tech. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company.
Meyer, J.W., & Rowan, B. (1977). Institutionalized Organizations: Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony. American Journal of Sociology, 83(2), 340–363. https://doi.org/10.1086/226550
Meyer, M.W. (1968). Automation and Bureaucratic Structure. American Journal of Sociology, 74(3), 256–264. https://doi.org/10.1086/224639
Meyer, M.W. (2001). What Happened to Middle Management? In I. Berg & A.L. Kalleberg (Eds.), Sourcebook of Labor Markets (pp. 449–466). Boston, MA: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-1225-7_18
Morrill, C. (1995). The Executive Way: Conflict Management in Corporations. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Muller, M.J., & Kuhn, S. (1993). Participatory Design. Commun. ACM, 36(6), 24–28. https://doi.org/10.1145/153571.255960
Occhiuto, N. (2017). Investing in Independent Contract Work: The Significance of Schedule Control for Taxi Drivers. Work and Occupations, 44(3), 268–295. https://doi.org/10.1177/0730888417697231
O’Mara, M. (2019). The Code: Silicon Valley and the Remaking of America. London: Penguin.
Orr, J.E. (1996). Talking about Machines: An Ethnography of a Modern Job. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Osterman, P. (1996). Broken Ladders: Managerial Careers in the New Economy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195093537.001.0001
Osterman, P. (2006). The Changing Employment Circumstances of Managers. In E. Lawler & J. O’Toole (Eds.), America at Work: Choices and Challenges. London: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781403983596_11
Petriglieri, G., Ashford, S.J., & Wrzesniewski, A. (2019). Agony and Ecstasy in the Gig Economy: Cultivating Holding Environments for Precarious and Personalized Work Identities. Administrative Science Quarterly, 64(1), 124–170. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001839218759646
Pinch, T.J., & Bijker, W.E. (1984). The Social Construction of Facts and Artefacts: Or How the Sociology of Science and the Sociology of Technology might Benefit Each Other. Social Studies of Science, 14(3), 399–441. https://doi.org/10.1177/030631284014003004
Prechel, H. (1994). Economic Crisis and the Centralization of Control Over the Managerial Process: Corporate Restructuring and Neo-Fordist Decision-Making. American Sociological Review, 59(5), 723–745. https://doi.org/10.2307/2096445
Raghavan, M., Barocas, S., Kleinberg, J., & Levy, K. (2020). Mitigating Bias in Algorithmic Hiring: Evaluating Claims and Practices. In M. Raghavan, S. Barocas, J. Kleinberg, & K. Levy (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (p. 469–481). New York, NY: Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/3351095.3372828
Rahman, H. (2024). Inside the Invisible Cage: How Algorithms Control Workers. Oakland, CA: University of California Press. <https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520395558
Ravenelle, A. (2019). Hustle and Gig: Struggling and Surviving in the Sharing Economy. Oakland, CA: University of California Press. https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520971899
Rosenblat, A. (2018). Uberland: How Algorithms are Rewriting the Rules of Work. Oakland, CA: University of California Press. https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520970632
Rosenblat, A., & Stark, L. (2016). Algorithmic Labor and Information Asymmetries: A Case Study of Uber’s Drivers. International Journal of Communication, 10, 3758–3784. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2686227
Schneider, D., & Harknett, K. (2019). Consequences of Routine Work-Schedule Instability for Worker Health and Well-Being. American Sociological Review, 84(1), 82–114. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122418823184
Schor, J.B., & Attwood‐Charles, W. (2017). The “Sharing” Economy: Labor, Inequality, and Social Connection on For-profit Platforms. Sociology Compass, 11(8), e12493. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12493
Schor, J.B., Attwood-Charles, W., Cansoy, M., Ladegaard, I., & Wengronowitz, R. (2020). Dependence and Precarity in the Platform Economy. Theory and Society, 49, 833–861. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11186-020-09408-y
Schwartz, D. (2018). Embedded in the Crowd: Creative Freelancers, Crowdsourced Work, and Occupational Community. Work and Occupations, 45(3), 247–282. https://doi.org/10.1177/0730888418762263
Seaver, N. (2019). Knowing Algorithms. In J. Vertesi, D. Ribes, C. DiSalvo, Y. Loukissas, L. Forlano, D.K. Rosner, S.J. Jackson, & H.R. Shell (Eds.), digitalSTS (pp. 412–422). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Shestakofsky, B. (2017). Working Algorithms: Software Automation and the Future of Work. Work and Occupations, 44(4), 376–423. https://doi.org/10.1177/0730888417726119
Shestakofsky, B. (2024). Behind the Startup: How Venture Capital Shapes Work, Innovation, and Inequality. Oakland, CA: University of California Press. https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520395046
Shestakofsky, B., & Kelkar, S. (2020). Making Platforms Work: Relationship Labor and the Management of Publics. Theory and Society, 49, 863–896. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11186-020-09407-z
Silbey, S.S. (2011). The Sociological Citizen: Pragmatic and Relational Regulation in Law and Organizations. Regulation & Governance, 5(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5991.2011.01106.x
Srnicek, N. (2017). Platform Capitalism. Cambridge: Polity.
Stark, D. (1980). Class Struggle and the Transformation of the Labor Process. Theory and Society, 9(1), 89–130. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00158894
Stark, D. (1999). Heterarchy: Distributing Intelligence and Organizing Diversity. In J.H. Clippinger (Ed.), The Biology of Business: Decoding the Natural Laws of Enterprise (pp. 153–179). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Stark, D. (2001). Ambiguous Assets for Uncertain Environments: Heterarchy in Postsocialist Firms. In P. DiMaggio (Ed.), The Twentieth Century Firm: Changing Economic Organization in International Perspective (pp. 69–104). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Stark, D. (2009). The Sense of Dissonance: Accounts of Worth in Economic Life. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400831005
Stark, D., & Broeck, P.V. (2024). Principles of Algorithmic Management. Organization Theory, 5(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/26317877241257213
Stark, D., & Pais, I. (2020). Algorithmic Management in the Platform Economy. Sociologica, 14(3), 47–72. https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1971-8853/12221
Suchman, L. (2006). Human-Machine Reconfigurations: Plans and Situated Actions (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Original work published 2006).
Suchman, L. (2011). Subject Objects. Feminist Theory, 12(2), 119–145. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464700111404205
Ticona, J. (2015). Strategies of Control: Workers’ Use of ICTs to Shape Knowledge and Service Work. Information, Communication & Society, 18(5), 509–523. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2015.1012531
Ticona, J. (2022). Red Flags, Sob Stories, and Scams: The Contested Meaning of Governance on Carework Labor Platforms. New Media & Society, 24(7), 1548–1566. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448221099233
Turco, C. (2016). The Conversational Firm. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. https://doi.org/10.7312/turc17898
Turner, F. (2009). Burning Man at Google: A Cultural Infrastructure for New Media Production. New Media & Society, 11(1–2), 73–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444808099575
Vallas, S. (1993). Power in the Workplace: The Politics of Production at AT&T. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Vallas, S. (2006). Empowerment Redux: Structure, Agency, and the Remaking of Managerial Authority. American Journal of Sociology, 111(6), 1677–1717. https://doi.org/10.1086/499909
Vallas, S., Johnston, H., & Mommadova, Y. (2022). Prime Suspect: Mechanisms of Labor Control at Amazon’s Warehouses. Work and Occupations, 49(4), 421–456. https://doi.org/10.1177/07308884221106922
Vallas, S., & Kronberg, A.K. (2023). Coercion, Consent, and Class Consciousness: How Workers Respond to Amazon’s Production Regime. Socius, 9. https://doi.org/10.1177/23780231231216286
Vallas, S., & Schor, J.B. (2020). What Do Platforms Do? Understanding the Gig Economy. Annual Review of Sociology, 46(1), 273–294. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-121919-054857
Vertesi, J. (2020). Shaping Science: Organizations, Decisions, and Culture on Nasa’s Teams. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.
Vertesi, J., Goldstein, A., Enriquez, D., Liu, L., & Miller, K.T. (2020). Pre-Automation: Insourcing and Automating the Gig Economy. Sociologica, 14(3), 167–193. https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1971-8853/11657
Watkins, E.A. (2022). “Have you learned your lesson?” Communities of Practice under Algorithmic Competition. New Media & Society, 24(7), 1567–1590. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448221099229
Watkins, E.A., & Stark, D. (2018). The Möbius Organizational Form: Make, Buy, Cooperate, or Co-opt? Sociologica, 12(1), 65–80. https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1971-8853/8364
Weil, D. (2014). The Fissured Workplace: Why Work Became So Bad for So Many and What Can Be Done to Improve It. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674726123
Winner, L. (1986). Do Artifacts Have Politics? In The Whale and the Reactor: A Search for Limits in an Age of High Technology (pp. 19–39). Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press.
Wood, A.J., Graham, M., Lehdonvirta, V., & Hjorth, I. (2019). Good Gig, Bad Gig: Autonomy and Algorithmic Control in the Global Gig Economy. Work, Employment and Society, 33(1), 56–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/0950017018785616
Ziewitz, M. (2016). Governing Algorithms: Myth, Mess, and Methods. Science, Technology & Human Values, 41(1), 3–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162243915608948
Zuckerman, E.W. (2010). Speaking with One Voice: A “Stanford School” Approach to Organizational Hierarchy. In C.B. Schoonhoven & F. Dobbin (Eds.), Stanford’s Organization Theory Renaissance, 1970-2000. Research in the Sociology of Organizations, Vol. 28. (pp. 289–307). Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0733-558X(2010)0000028020
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Janet A. Vertesi, Diana Enriquez
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
